Meat, wild and poultry products: Hazard overview

Legislation of meat, wild and poultry products

Table 1 Legislation meat products food safety status

Regulation	Foodstuffs animal
(EC) No 178/2002	General principles and requirements of food law establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down procedures in matters of food safety
(EC) No 852/2004	Food hygiene
(EC) No 853/2004	Hygiene in the production of products of animal origin
(EC) No 2073/2005	Microbiological criteria for food
(EU) No 1169/2011	Provision of food information for consumers
(EC) No 1333/2008	Food additives
(EC) No 882/2004	Official controls on compliance with feed and food law, animal health and animal welfare rules
(EC) No 1881/2006	Determining maximum levels of certain contaminants
(EC) No 854/2004	Official controls on food from animal products
(EC) No 2074/2005	Implementing measures for special animal products
(EC) No 1234/2007	as regards marketing standards for poultry meat
(EC) No 2022/2388	amending Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006 as regards maximum levels of perfluoroalkyl substances in certain foodstuffs

Microbiological hazards meat

Table 2 Common microbiological hazards

Genus	Pathogenic species	GR	Form, mobility	O₂	T (C.)	T1 (C.)	pH-O	pH-R	aW	Illness
Aeromonas	hydrophilic, sobria, caviae	–	Rod, mobile	Fa	20-35	4,0-42,0		4,0-10,0	>0.97	Infection: diarrhoea, stomachache and vomiting.
Bacillus	cereus	+	Rod (3-5 um length 1 um wide) spore forming, mobile	Aerobe (sometimes Fa)	28,35	10,0-48,0	6.0-7,5	4,9-9,3	>0.91	Poisoning (Tox. 1) and infection (Tox. 2)
Campylobacter	jenuni, coli	–	Spiral formed rod, mobile.	Min. 3 % Max. 15 % opt. 5 % oxygen	42-45	30-47	6,5 – 7,5	4,9 – 9,5	>0.98	Infection: Stomachache, diarrhoea, fever, sometimes meningitis.
Clostridium	botulinum seven species categorized into toxins: A, B, C1, D, E, F, G)	+	Rod (4-8 um long and 0,9-1,2 um wide; type E 0,3-0,7 um wide), spore forming	Anear.	30-37	P: 10-45 NP: 3,3-45	6,5-7,0	P: 4.6-9.0 NP: 5.0-9.0	P: >0.95 NP: >0.97	Poisoning by this very toxic neurotoxin; is deadly unless it is treated in time.
Clostridium	perfringens (five types categorized on formed enterotoxins: A to E)	+	Rod (2-8 um long, 1um wide), spore-forming	Anear. Low oxygen levels are also possible.	43-45	15-50	6-7,5	5,5-8,5	> 0.95	Infection: toxin forming in the small intestine leads to stomach and intestine complaints such as stomachache, diarrhoea, and low mortality.
Escherichia	coli (also O157:H7)	–	Rod	Fa	30-37	10-45.5 (EHEC)	7	4,4-9,5	> 0.95	Infection by EHEC group of which E. coli 0157:H7 (hamburger disease) is the most severe; the mortality is around 35%.
Listeria	monocytogenes (11 species; 3 cause 90% of the infections)	+	Rod (0,5-2,0um long, 0,5um wide), mobile at 20-25°C.	Fa	3,0-37,0	0-45	7	5-9 (at 4gr. C) 4,4-9,0 (at 30grC)	> 0.92	Infections of healthy individuals lead to flu symptoms. Infants, the Elderly, the ill and pregnant women might get severe symptoms when infected by Listera. (Meningitis, blood poisoning and abortion). In these risk groups is the mortality 30-50%.
Plesiomonas	shigalloides	–	Rod	Fa	37-38	8,0-44,0		5-7,7		Infection: stomach and intestine complaints (diarrhoea, stomachache, vomiting) could cause meningitis in sensitive individuals (very young children, elderly and immunodeficiency
Salmonella	Two thousand three hundred species that might cause enteritis (stomach inflammation).	–	Rod, sometimes mobile	Fa	35-37	5,0-45,0	7	4,0-9,0	>0.93	Infection: intestinal inflammation. For the elderly, small children and sick, illness can be fatal.
Salmonella	typhus; paratyphus	–	Rod	Fa	37	5,0-45,0			>0.93	Typhus, paratyphus are the most severe illnesses caused by Salmonella.
Shigella	Several	–	Rod	Fa	37	7,0-46,0		5,0-8,0		Infection: dysentery by inflammation of the intestinal wall. Severity is dependent on the Shigella species.
Staphylococcus	aureus, not all species are pathogenic.	+	Coc (0.5-1um in diameter), coccus are formed in a grape-like cluster.	Fa	37	10,0-45,0	6,5-7,5	5,2-9,0	>0.85 opt: >0.98	Toxin results in vomiting and stomachache. Compared with other infections are, the symptoms mild.
Yersinia	entero-colitica (some species are pathogenic)	–	Rod, sometimes round, sometimes mobile	Fa	32-34	0-44	7,0-8,0	4.6-9.0 at 25° C	>0.96	Infection: diarrhoea, a disease similar to appendicitis and is rarely fatal.

Table 3 Viruses, rickettsia in meat products, derived from Hazard table Viruses, rickettsia, prions

Virus, ricket, prion	Origin	Food product	MID	Disease	Preventive Measurements	Comments
Viral-gastro-enteritis (stomach flu with diarrhoea, stomach ache and vomiting) viruses (adenovirus, astrovirus, calicivirus, coronavirus, Norwalk virus, rotavirus)	Human	All food products direct or through aerosols or vomiting by Human contaminated or faecal polluted water → especially shellfish.	A few virus particles	Gastro-enteritis. Incubation time is 12-50 hours; infants and small children are extra sensitive to viruses.	Personal hygiene. Contaminated persons should prevent the handling of raw materials. Heating: several minutes at 85-90 ° C. Sensitive target groups should prevent consumption of shellfish.	Norwalk virus is the most common among older children and adults. Rotavirus could be fatal for infants and young children. 30% of gastroenteritis is caused by viruses (not necessarily through food!).
Prions	Sheep, elderly cows and humans.	Organs containing central nervous system tissues (brains as an example).	–	Degenerative diseases of the nervous system.		Scrapie (at sheep), BSE (bovine) and Creutzfeldt Jacob (Humans) are caused by prions. Further relatively unknown. Transmission from animal to human (zoonoses) and the transmission from bovine to human is very probable.

Chemistry hazards meat

Table 4 possible chemical hazards derived from Hazard table Chemical

Chemical component	Food product	Legislation	Comments
PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons), Benzo(a)pyrene.	Oils/fats, smoked meat products, aromas etc.	Maximum levels according to Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006	Formed during combustion processes (baking, roasting, BBQ). Carcinogenic PAHs induce cancer in the lungs and the digestive tract.
Dioxins: Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), Polychlorinated dibenzofurans PCDFs and 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD).	Meat (through Feed) and poultry, fish (especially fatty fish such as herring and salmon) and Vegetables, Oils/fats, dairy and eggs	Maximum levels according to Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006	Formed from chlorinated linkages during heating with low oxygen levels. Carcinogenic for humans and animals above a threshold level.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxin-like PCBs (dl-PCBs)	Meat (through Feed) poultry, fish (especially fatty fish such as herring and salmon), Vegetables, Oils/fats, dairy and eggs	Maximum levels according to Regulation (EC) No 1881/2006	Carcinogenic for animals and humans. Moreover, it might induce skin disorders, reproductive toxicity and liver diseases. PCBs burn above 1200 °C, are insoluble and are applied as plasticizers, paint, ink, lacquer, glue and insecticides.
Residues: (animal)medicines, antibiotics, anti-microbial substances, growth promotors and vitamins.	Meat	Forbidden	Inspection for each drug is a Maximum Residue Level (MRL) established with a specific accepted amount in herbs, liver, kidney, fat, milk and eggs. The usage of Chloramphenicol and nitrofuran is forbidden in the EU and VS while still accepted in some Asian countries.
Residue: hormones	Meat	Forbidden	Inspection (growth) hormones are generally not directly carcinogenic or genotoxic but still contain some risks).
Components as a consequence of fat oxidation.	herbs (products), dairy products (containing normal amounts of fat) and every other product known as a “fatty” product.	Accepted, no direct consequences for public health.	Fat oxidation causes off flavours of organoleptic characteristics. Through the reaction of oxygen with the formed aldehydes acetic acid, formic acid and propionic acid can be formed. This induces rancidity.
Maillard-reaction	Protein-rich products		Might cause a shortage of essential amino acid Lysine.
Growth promotors: anabolic steroids, categorized into three groups: estrogenic-, androgenic- and progestogenic steroids. Synthetic steroids: ethinylestradiol, diethylstilbestrol (DES), trenbolone, and Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA).	Meat		Energy used for the growth of the animal will be focused on the manufacturing of proteins at the cost of fats.
Growth promotors; Beta-agonists. Known as: clenbuterol, salbutamol and bromobuterol.	Meat		Responsible for the breaking down of fats and production of proteins (repartition drugs).

Table 5 Viruses, rickettsia in meat products, derived from Hazard table Other Biotoxins

Name Biotoxin	Origin	Food product	Illness	Comments
Biogenic-amine Histamine	Plants, animals and microbes	Almost all food products are high in proteins. Histamine is formed from histidine by enzymes mainly from the Enterobacteriaceae.	Influences physiological processes in the body. Consumption of biogenic amines could lead to poisoning. Symptoms: nausea, stuffiness, palpitations, eczema, unnatural blood pressure and headache.	Often present in fish as histamine, a symptom similar to food poisoning.

Meat fraud

Meat fraud can be defined as the conscious or deliberate adaptation or alteration of some aspect of meat with the intention of obtaining a financial benefit. This is often done administratively, for example by adjusting the administration, packaging or labeling with the aim of misleading the customer. Traditionally, the Dutch Food Safety Authority-IOD has a good information position in the meat sector. About half of all reports that the NVWA-IOD receives or collects annually are about meat fraud. The same applies to the criminal investigations carried out by the Dutch food safety authority-IOD: roughly half of these focus on meat fraud.

More information about food fraud can be found on the following link ‘Meat fraud‘